History of Kampo Medicine
Three Main Classics on the History of Kampo
Traditional Chinese medicine dates back to the Shang Dynasty, or about 3000 years ago. Some of the ancient hieroglyphic characters found on bones and carapaces from the Shang Period include health-related descriptions such as illness and disease. While shamanism was dominant during this period, it is likely that empirical medicine was also practiced. During the Han Dynasty, the "three principal classics of Chinese medicine and Kampo medicine" were compiled and established, namely, the Shinno-honzokyo, Koteidaikei, and Shokan-zatsubyoron
Shinno-honzokyo is the oldest extant medical textbook in China, and
describes 365
different varieties of raw materials for crude drug, a number equivalent to each
calendar day in a year. It was compiled between the 1st and 2nd centuries and while the
editor remains unknown, Shinno, the father of medicine and agriculture, is honored as
the legendary originator. In the text, crude drugs are categorized into three classes,
Jo (superior), Chu (middle), and Ge (inferior), according to their therapeutic effects.
The interactions between the different botanicals are also explained.
Kotei-daikei is a compilation of organized and edited medical theses written after the
Chunqiu Warring States period, and was completed between the end of the Former Han
Period and the beginning of the Later Han Period. Named after Kotei, another illustrious
emperor as renowned as Shinno, Koteidaikei consists of two distinct sections, Somon and
Reisu, and the content is divided into basic science such as physiology and pathology,
and clinical medicine such as acupuncture, moxibustion, and other clinical
practices.
Shokan-zatsubyoron is a collection of prescriptions by Zhang Zhong Jing in the Later Han
Dynasty (early 200 A.D.). Originally a single text, it was later divided into two
separate texts, Shokanron and Kinki-yoryaku, as they are known today. Shokanron focuses
on cold-induced or acute febrile diseases, while Kinki-yoryaku focuses on chronic
degenerative diseases.
Import of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine was actively incorporated and imitated in Japan
during
between 250 A.D. to 538 A.D. (Kofun Period) and 793 A.D.
In the 5th and 6th centuries, traditional Chinese medicine was imported to Japan via the
Korean Peninsula, along with Buddhism and other cultures. By the 7th century, diplomatic
delegations such as Kenzuishi and Kentoshi were sent to China as needed, and helped
introduce the healthcare system and medicine directly from China.
Other important medical texts compiled over the course of multiple periods include
Shohinho in the Six Dynasties of Ancient China, Shobyo-genkoron in the Sui Dynasty, and
Senkinho and Gedai-hiyoho in the Tang Dynasty.
The enactment of the Taiho Code in 701 A.D. created Japan's first medical affairs
system, Ishitsuryo, and established Tenyaku-ryo, the ancestor of today's Ministry of
Health, Labour and Welfare, Department of Medicine, and Department of Pharmacy. The
healthcare system created during this period was based on Shohinho, Somon,
Honzokyo-shicchu, and other textbooks.
The Shosoin in Nara prefecture houses 40 raw material for crude drug specimens that were
dedicated to the Todai Temple in 756 A.D. As herbal specimens collected before 1250,
these raw materials for crude drug have unprecedented value. Daio (Rhubarb) and ninjin
(Ginseng), which are still used in today's prescriptions, are examples of the herbal
specimens. Interestingly, an extensive scientific study conducted between 1948 and 1951
showed that these antiquated botanicals still retained their therapeutic potency.
Imitation of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Japanese medicine in the 10th century (Heian period) was still merely an
imitation of traditional Chinese medicine. This was when Japanese physicians began to
take initiative and compile their own pharmacopoeias.
Compiled in 984 A.D. by Yasuyori Tanba, Ishinpo is Japan's oldest extant medical book
with 30 volumes of citations from numerous Chinese medical texts. Ishinpo is the
definitive text, tracing the roots of Japanese medicine to Chinese medicine. The
printing techniques of the Sung Dynasty enabled the compilation and reprints of new
medical books and important classics. These included Taihei-keimin-wazai-kyokuho, which
contains some of the formulations that are still in use today, such as juzentaihoto and
anchusan. Other texts included Shokanron and Kinki-yoryaku. Keisi-shorui-taikan-honzo
contains monographs on 1744 medicinal substances, five times the number of monographs in
Shinno-honzokyo, and it remains the authoritative text on materia medica.
By the late 12th century (Kamakura period), the Japan-Sung trade had stimulated
commercial relations between Japan and China, and led to an influx of Sung dynasty
medical texts. At the same time, Japanese physicians began to adopt their own medical
theories, as exemplified by the sentiment of Ton-isho written by the priest and
physician, Shozen Kajiwara. As priests replaced court physicians as providers of
healthcare, the scope of people receiving healthcare extended to the general public.
The Jin-Yuan period in China marked the emergence of four men who revolutionized the
medical theories of their time: Liu He Jian, Zhang Zihe, Li Dong Yuan, and Zhu Dan Xi.
Prescriptions such as Bofutsushosan and Hochuekkito were created by Lin He Jian and Li
Dong Yuan during this period.
Japanization of Traditional Chinese Medicine
The Japanization of traditional Chinese medicine took place between the 14th century
(Muromachi period) and the early 17th century (early Edo period). This began with Sanki
Tashiro's return to Japan with what was then considered the most advanced school of
medicine, namely Jin-Yuan medicine, and in particular, Li-Zhu medicine. His disciple,
Dosan Manase, encouraged the spread of this medicine and laid the foundations for the
Goseihoha School (School of Later Developments in Medicine), which flourished during the
early Edo period. The medical practices carried out by Dosan's successors, Gensaku
Manase, Gyuzan Katsuki, Genya Okamoto, and other leaders of the Jin-Yuan school were
referred to as the Goseihoha School.
With advances in Jin-Yuan medicine in China, Honzo-komoku, the authoritative text on
materia medica, and medical encyclopedias such as Manbyo-kaishun, the bestseller during
the Edo period and the source of prescriptions like Rikkunshito, were compiled.
Hideyoshi Toyotomi's invasions of Korea led to the import of typography techniques,
which further facilitated the diffusion and Japanization of Chinese medicine.
The Emergence of Kampo, the Traditional Medicine of Japan
The Kohoha School (School of Classical Formulas), the dominant school today that
emerged in the late 17th century (mid Edo period), was pivotal in accelerating the
Japanization of Chinese medicine. By eliminating speculative theories such as Inyo-Gogyo
of the Goseihoha School, the Kohoha School advocated a return to the practical theories
of Chinese medicine such as those found in Shokanron and Kinki-yoryaku. Proponents of
this movement included Gen-i Nagoya, Konzan Goto, and Ekiken Kaibara, the latter well
known for his work in Yojokun.
In 1759, Toyo Yamawaki of the Kohoha School wrote the first anatomical text, called
Zo-shi. Subsequently, Todo Yoshimasu, who earned renown with his recognition by
Yamawaki, proclaimed that "all diseases derive from a single toxin", and used strong
drugs to treat the toxin, which meant the disease.
Todo wrote the Yakucho, a text that expressed the Kohoha School's original theories on
the therapeutic effects of medicinal plants in Shokanron and Kinki-yoryaku. He also
recompiled Shokanron by prescription and published the clinically useful Ruijuho, a
bestseller in its day. Todo's oldest son Nangai modified his father's theories and
became the first physician to advocate the theory of Kiketsusui (vital energy, blood,
and body fluids). Bunrei Inaba wrote the Fukusho-kiran, which helped establish the
Japanese method of abdominal diagnosis.
The Development of Japanese Kampo and the Japanization of Chinese Medicine
In the 18th century (late Edo period), practitioners that integrated the perceived
strengths of the Goseihoha and Kohoha schools emerged, as did those who emphasized the
clinical applications of Kampo preparations, and were dubbed the Secchuha (Eclectic
School). Tokaku Wada and Sohaku Asada were representative figures in this school. In
1804, Seishu Hanaoka succeeded in combining Dutch medicine (Rangaku) with Kampo and
became the first surgeon to treat breast cancer with surgery and Tsusensan, a Kampo
formulation. One of his students, Soken Honma, wrote the Naikahiroku and Yokahiroku in
an effort to integrate Kampo with Western medicine, and his school later became known as
the Rankan Secchuha.
Sohaku Asada, a giant in Kampo medicine, who was practicing during the late 19th century
(between the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the early Meiji period), was appointed as
the official doctor for the Edo Shogunate after successfully treating cholera and
measles. After the Meiji Restoration, Asada became the imperial physician and
contributed greatly to the perpetuation of Kampo medicine. Futsugo-yakushitsu-hokan and
Futsugo-yakushitsu-hokan-kuketsu were Sohaku Asada's most cherished formularies and
source texts for prescriptions used in modern Japanese Kampo.
Decline and Survival of Kampo
The tide of medical modernization that swept Japan during the late 19th century (Meiji
period) led to the rapid decline of Kampo.
With the aim of facilitating modernization and increasing wealth and military power, a
new education and healthcare system favoring Western medicine was established by the
Meiji government in 1874. The new system institutionalized the examination system, which
based its structure on seven Western medical subjects, as well as the licensure of
medical practice. Further, under the Dajokan (Grand Council of the State) proclamation
in 1883, the medical license system granted licenses only to physicians who had passed
the national exam to practice medicine. By 1895, the 8th National Assembly of the Diet
vetoed a request to continue the practice of Kampo, driving it to the brink of
extinction. Yet despite losing it legal standing, the tradition was kept alive primarily
at the grass-roots level by dedicated physicians, pharmacists, and vendors of
traditional medicines. In addition, Keijyuro Wada's self-published Ikai-no-tettsui in
1910, which criticized Western medicine and commended Kampo medicine, sparked a
revival.
Revival of Kampo
In 1927, Kyushin Yumoto published the historic Kokan Igaku, which triggered the revival
of Kampo in the early 20th century (Showa period). Subsequently, Yumoto earned the title
as "the father of the revival of Kampo" and "the pioneer in the integration of
Eastern and Western medicine."
Also during this period, the writings of Keijyuro Wada and Kyushin Yumoto laid the
foundations for a gradual renaissance of Kampo medicine. The efforts of Yoshinori
Otsuka, Domei Yakazu, Shiro Hosono, Kenzo Okuda, and other leaders of the pre- and
postwar Kampo revival movement led to the establishment of the Japan Society for
Oriental Medicine (JSOM) in 1950.
During the 1960s, a series of adverse drug reactions raised concerns about the exclusive
dependence on modern drugs for treatments.
In 1960, raw materials for crude drug listed in the Japanese Pharmacopoeia received
official drug prices under the National Health Insurance (NHI). In 1975, "The Handbook
of OTC Kampo formulations" was published under the supervision of the Pharmaceutical
Affairs Bureau of the Ministry of Health and Welfare. Thus, the Showa period was a time
of gathering momentum for the revival of contemporary Kampo.
Development and Progress of Kampo Medicine
In 1976, 33 Kampo formulations for prescriptions were added to the National Health
Insurance drug price list, and new formulations have continued to be added since then.
Currently, 148 Kampo formulations are on the drug price list.
Prompted by the Pharmaceutical Affairs Bureau's 1985 notification on the handling of
Kampo extract formulations for prescription, a new set of quality standards for Kampo
formulations was established to ensure the equivalence between Kampo extract
formulations for prescription and standard decoctions.
In 1991, the Japan Society for Oriental Medicine (JSOM) was officially registered as the
87th member of the Sectional Committee of the Japanese Association of Medical Sciences.
In 2001, a new section for education in Oriental medicine to foster the "basic
understanding of Kampo medicines" was added to the Model Core Curriculum of medical
schools. In 2002, the Model Core Curriculum of pharmaceutical colleges also included a
section on education in "Raw Materials for Crude Drug and Kampo formulations in modern
healthcare". Today, numerous textbooks have been published and all medical and
pharmaceutical colleges and universities have incorporated Kampo medicine into their
curricula.
In 2006, the Japanese Board of Medical Specialties designated the Japan Society of
Oriental Medicine (JSOM) member physicians as Kampo specialists, and many universities
and public research centers subsequently established research departments and outpatient
clinics specializing in Kampo medicine. The number of scientific presentations on basic
and clinical research of Kampo medicine at academic societies has also increased
rapidly. These changes herald a new era for the adoption and development of Kampo
medicine.